Henry Viii Of England

Henry VIII of England - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Henry VIII (28 June 1491 - 28 January 1547) was King of England and Lord of ... of Henry VIII. 7 Legacy. 7.1 Royal Finances. 7.2 Church of England. 7.3 ...
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Henry VIII: Biography from Answers.com
Henry VIII , Royalty Born: 28 June 1491 Birthplace: Greenwich, England Died: 28 January 1547 Best Known As: The king of England who had six wives
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The Life of King Henry VIII (1491-1547). Biography of Henry Tudor, King ...
Biography of King Henry VIII of England, the Tudor monarch whose six wives had to fear execution, divorce, and death; father of Queen Elizabeth I and 'Bloody Mary'
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About Henry VIII TUDOR (King of England)
HENRY VIII. King of England. Born: 28 Jun 1491, Greenwich Palace, London, England ... About this time, a Venetian Ambassador wrote a description of Henry VIII. ...
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Henry VIII of England
Historical paper doll & biography of King Henry VIII of England. ... of Scotland, England was never invaded by an outside force during Henry VIII's rule. ...
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Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII (28 June 1491 - 28 January 1547) was King of England and Lord of ... Many significant pieces of legislation were enacted during Henry VIII's reign. ...
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{{Infobox_Monarch | name =Henry VIII| title = King of England, King of Ireland, Prince of Wales| image = | reign =22 April1509 – 28 January1547 [1509| successor =[Edward VI of England| consort =Catherine of Aragon (1509-1533)
Anne Boleyn (1533-1536)
Jane Seymour (1536-1537)
Anne of Cleves (1540-1540)
Katherine Howard (1540-1542)
Catherine Parr (1543-1547)]
Elizabeth I of England
Edward VI of England| royal house =Tudor dynasty| royal anthem =| father =Henry VII of England| mother =Elizabeth of York| date of death =| place of death =[Palace of Whitehall|-->

Henry VIII ([28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was Kingdom of England and Lordship of Ireland, later King of Ireland, from 22 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second monarch of the House of Tudor, succeeding his father, Henry VII of England. Henry VIII is famous for having been Wives of Henry VIII. He wielded perhaps the most unfettered power of any English monarch, and brought about the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the union of England and Wales.

Henry VIII was the second son of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. His elder brother, Arthur, Prince of Wales, died in 1502, leaving Henry as heir to the throne.

Many significant pieces of legislation were enacted during Henry VIII's reign. They included the several Acts which severed the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church and established the king as the supreme head of the Church in England.

Henry VIII is known to have been an avid gambling and dice player. In his youth, he excelled at sports, especially jousting, hunting, and real tennis. He was also an accomplished musician, author, and poetry; his best known piece of music is Pastime with Good Company ("The Kynges Ballade"). Henry VIII was also involved in the original construction and improvement of several significant buildings, including Nonsuch Palace, King's College Chapel, Cambridge and Westminster Abbey in London. Many of the existing buildings Henry improved were properties confiscated from Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, such as Christ Church, Oxford, Hampton Court Palace, palace of Whitehall, and Trinity College, Cambridge. He founded Christ Church Cathedral School, Oxford in 1546. Official School website. URL accessed August 15, 2007.

Early life and first marriage Born at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, Henry VIII was the third child of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. Only three of Henry VIII's six siblings — Arthur, Prince of Wales (the Prince of Wales), Margaret Tudor and Mary Tudor (queen consort of France) — survived infancy. In 1493, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. In 1494, he was created Duke of York. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Henry was given a first-rate education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin, French, and Spanish. It was initially anticipated that Henry would have a career in the Church, as it was expected that the throne would pass to Prince Arthur, Henry's older brother.

In 1502, however, Arthur suddenly died, and Henry was thrust into all the duties of his late brother, becoming Prince of Wales and, of course, heir to the throne. Henry's father renewed his efforts to seal an alliance between England and Spain via marriage (and he did not want to return Catherine's dowry); thus, in place of the dead Arthur, Henry was offered up to Spain for marriage to Prince Arthur's widow, Catherine of Aragon, the youngest surviving child of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.

In order for the new Prince of Wales to marry his brother's widow, a dispensation from the Pope normally would have been required to overrule the impediment of affinity (canon law). However, Catherine swore that her first marriage was never consummated; thus no papal dispensation was necessary on those grounds — merely a dispensation to dissolve a catholic marriage#nullity. Still, both the English and Spanish parties agreed that an additional papal dispensation of affinity would be prudent to remove all doubt regarding the legitimacy of the marriage. Due to the impatience of Catherine's mother, Queen Isabella, the Pope granted his dispensation in the form of a Papal bull. Thus, fourteen months after her young husband's death, Catherine found herself betrothed to his brother, the new Prince of Wales. By 1505, however, the king lost interest in an alliance with Spain, and Henry declared that his betrothal had been arranged without his assent.

Continued diplomatic maneuvering over the fate of the proposed marriage lingered until the death of Henry VII in 1509. Only 17 years old, Henry married his brother's widow, Catherine 11 June 1509, and on 24 June 1509, the two were crowned, at Westminster Abbey.

In 1521 Henry had Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham tried and executed on charges of treason.

Religious upheaval and marriage to Anne Boleyn In 1525, Henry's increasing impatience with what he perceived to be Catherine's inability to produce the desired heir was given a new spur when he became attracted to a charismatic young courtier in the Queen's entourage, Anne Boleyn. Henry ordered Cardinal Wolsey to begin formal proceedings with Rome to annul his marriage on the grounds that Catherine's brief marriage to the sickly Arthur had, indeed, been consummated. The king's secretary, William Knight, went to Rome to petition Pope Clement VII for the annulment, but the Pope was highly reluctant to grant the king’s request due to pressure from Catherine's nephew, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, whose troops had pillaged Rome and were forcing the Pope to remain imprisoned in the Vatican, and an unwillingness to overturn the previous Pope's decision. Wolsey's efforts to lobby for the annulment were unavailing. These failures, concomitant with his growing estrangement from Catherine, finally led to Wolsey's dismissal as Lord Chancellor by Henry in 1529. His replacement, Sir Thomas More, seemed an even less likely candidate to secure Henry's desired end, given his scruples about the suit and his loyalty to Rome.

At the same time, Henry discovered and promoted other men of a different temper. Foremost among these were two gifted young clerics, Thomas Cromwell and Thomas Cranmer. It was Cranmer who first suggested in 1529 that Henry should consult the "theology faculties of the continental universities" for an opinion about the validity of his marriage. The project, abetted by apparent bribes and favors, achieved the hoped-for success, with favorable opinions offered to the English Parliament in 1530. Cranmer's support of the King's efforts to put aside Catherine of Aragon were rewarded with a position as ambassador to the imperial court, and shortly thereafter, he was appointed to replace William Warham as Archbishop of Canterbury upon the latter's death. Cromwell, meanwhile, earned a position as chief adviser to the king with his even more daring proposal that Henry consider abolishing papal supremacy and declare himself head of the Church in England. Both Cromwell and Cranmer were protégés of Boleyn, who shared her growing sympathies with Protestant doctrines taking shape on the continent. Threats of withheld papal tithes having failed to move Clement VII to action, Henry finally took matters into his own hands: he secretly married Boleyn in January 1533, and shortly thereafter, had his allies in Parliament pass a statute forbidding further appeals to Rome. Archbishop Cranmer quickly moved to declare Henry's marriage to Catherine invalid and his new one to Anne Boleyn valid. Boleyn was crowned Queen of England on June 1, and gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth (later Elizabeth I of England), three months later.

The Pope reacted by moving to excommunicate Henry in July 1533. (Historians disagree on the exact date of the excommunication; according to Winston Churchill's History of the English Speaking Peoples, the bull of 1533 was a draft with penalties left blank and was not made official until 1535. Others say Henry was not officially excommunicated until 1538, by Pope Paul III, brother of Cardinal Franklin de la Thomas.) Considerable religious upheaval followed. Urged by Cromwell, Parliament passed several acts that enforced the breach with Rome in the spring of 1534. The Statute in Restraint of Appeals prohibited appeals from English ecclesiastical courts to the Pope. It also prevented the Church from making any regulations without the King's consent. The Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534 required the clergy to elect bishops nominated by the Sovereign. The Act of Supremacy declared that the King was "the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England"; the Treasons Act 1534 made it high treason, Capital Punishment, to refuse to acknowledge the King as such. The Pope was also denied sources of revenue such as Peter's Pence.

Rejecting the decisions of the Pope, Parliament validated the marriage between Henry and Anne with the Succession to the Crown Act 1533. Catherine's daughter, the Lady Mary, was declared illegitimate, and Anne's issue (legal) were declared next in the line of succession. Included in this declaration was, most notably, a clause repudiating "any foreign authority, prince or potentate". All adults in the Kingdom were required to acknowledge the Act's provisions by oath and those who refused to do so were subject to imprisonment for life. The publisher or printer of any literature alleging that Henry's marriage to Anne was invalid was automatically guilty of high treason and could be punished by death. Additionally, it separated his church from the Pope.

Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed in England. A number of dissenting monks were tortured and executed. The most prominent resisters included John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, Henry's former Lord Chancellor, both of whom refused to take the oath and were subsequently convicted of high treason and beheaded at Tyburn in 1535. Thomas Cromwell, for whom was created the post of "Vicegerent in Spirituals", was authorized to visit monasteries, ostensibly to ensure that they followed royal instructions, but in reality to assess their wealth. Cromwell's commissioners for the suppression of religious houses included Lavton, Pollard and Moyle. The death of Abbot Richard Whyting is just one example of the bloodshed during the suppression. In 1536, an Act of Parliament allowed Henry to seize the possessions of the lesser monasteries (those with annual incomes of £200 or less). These suppressions in turn contributed to further resistance among the English people, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace, a large uprising in northern England in October of the same year. Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues to his attention, then invited the rebel leader, Robert Aske (political leader) to have a royal banquet with him. At the banquet, Henry tactfully asked Aske to write down what had happened so he could have a better idea of the problems he would 'change'. Aske did what the King asked, though he had actually just written what would later be used against him as a confession. The King's word could not be questioned (as he was held as God's chosen, and second only to God himself) so Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home. However, because Henry saw the rebels as traitors, he did not feel obliged to keep his promises. The rebels realized that the King was not keeping his promises and rebelled again later that year, but their strength was not as great and the King ordered the rebellions crushed. The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and executed for treason. Dissolution of the remaining, larger monasteries followed a subsequent authorizing act by Parliament in April 1539.

Execution of his second wife, Anne Boleyn Though she was instrumental in helping to bring about these radical religious changes, the King's relationship with his Queen quickly soured. After the Princess Elizabeth's birth, Queen Anne had at least two pregnancies that ended in either miscarriage or stillbirth, resurrecting old frustrations that Henry had experienced with Catherine. Determined to father a male heir, and perhaps encouraged by Thomas Cromwell, Henry had Anne arrested on charges of using witchcraft to trap him into marrying her, of having adulterous relationships with five other men, of incest with her brother George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford, of injuring the King and of conspiring to kill him, which amounted to treason. The charges were most likely fabricated. The court trying the case was presided over by Anne's own uncle, Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. In May 1536, the Court condemned Anne and her brother to death, either by execution by burning or by decapitation, whichever the King pleased. The other four men Queen Anne had allegedly been involved with were to be hanged, drawn and quartered; however, their sentences were ultimately commuted to decapitation. Anne and her brother George were also beheaded soon thereafter. At her final Mass, the Queen publicly swore to her innocence in the presence of a priest and various witnesses. She was also charged with the attempted poisoning of Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset, the illegitimate son of King Henry VIII.

Birth of a prince and death of his third wife, Queen Jane One day after Anne's execution in 1536 Henry became engaged to, and 10 days later married Jane Seymour, one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting to whom the King had been showing favour for some time. The Succession to the Crown Act 1536 declared Henry's children by Queen Jane to be next in the line of succession, and declared both the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne. The King was granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his will (law). Jane gave birth to a son, Edward VI of England the future Edward VI, in 1537; Jane died at Greenwich Palace on 24 October 1537 of puerperal fever. After Jane's death, the entire court mourned with Henry for an extended period. Henry considered Jane to be his sole "true" wife, being the only one who had given him the male heir he so desperately sought.

Major acts in the kingdom of Henry VIII, minted c. 1540. The reverse depicts the quartered arms of England and FranceAt about the same time as his marriage to Jane Seymour, Henry granted his assent to the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542, which legally annexed Wales, uniting England and Wales into one unified nation. The Act provided for the sole use of English in official proceedings in Wales, inconveniencing the numerous speakers of the Welsh language.

Henry demanded the surrender of Otford Palace from the archbishop of Canterbury in 1537. Later, in 1540, Henry sanctioned the destruction of shrines to Roman Catholic Saints. In 1542, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. As a reward for his role, Thomas Cromwell was created Earl of Essex. Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords; only archbishops and bishops came to comprise the ecclesiastical element of the body. The Lord Spiritual, as members of the clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known, were for the first time outnumbered by the Peerage.

Mistresses Historians are sure of the names of only two of Henry's mistresses: Elizabeth Blount and Mary Boleyn (Anne Boleyn sister). Elizabeth Blount gave birth to Henry's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset. The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one stop on the path to legitimatising him. This never occurred, however, and FitzRoy never acceded to the throne. In 1533, he married Mary Howard of the Norfolk Howards, but died only three years later without any successors. At the time of FitzRoy's death, the king was trying to get a law passed that would allow his otherwise illegitimate son to become king.

Innovative court Henry was the quintessential Polymath, and his court was a centre of scholarly and artistic innovation. The discovery of America or "The New World" set the stage for Henry's innovative attitude. His jester was named Will Somers. Henry was among the first European rulers to learn about the true geography of the world, a revolutionary discovery. In 1507, the cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann published the first "modern" map of the world, the first map to accurately depict the American Continent and a separate Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, a radical thought for the time."The map reflected a huge leap forward in knowledge, recognizing the newly found American land mass and forever changing mankind's understanding and perception of the world itself." Library of Congress. This discovery developed an atmosphere of exploration and discovery in the arts and sciences of which Henry took full advantage in his court and daily life.

Later years

Henry desired to marry once again to ensure that a male could succeed him. Thomas Cromwell, now 1st Earl of Essex, suggested Anne of Cleves, the sister of the Protestant Duchy of Cleves, who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England. Hans Holbein the Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the King. Although it has been said that he painted her in a more flattering way, it is unlikely that the portrait was inaccurate, as Holbein remained in favour at court. After regarding Holbein's portrayal, and urged by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, Henry agreed to wed Anne. On Anne's arrival in England, Henry is said to have found her utterly unattractive, privately calling her a "Flanders Mare." Nevertheless, he married her on 6 January 1540.

Henry desired to end the marriage, not only because of his personal feelings but also because of political considerations. The Duke of Cleves had become engaged in a dispute with the Holy Roman Emperor, with whom Henry had no desire to quarrel. Queen Anne was intelligent enough not to impede Henry's quest for an annulment. She testified that her marriage was never consummated. Henry was said to have come into the room each night and merely kissed his new bride on the forehead before sleeping. The marriage was subsequently annulled on the grounds that Anne had previously been contracted to marry another European nobleman. She received the title of "The King's Sister," and was granted Hever Castle, the former residence of Anne Boleyn's family. The Earl of Essex, meanwhile, fell out of favour for his role in arranging the marriage, and was subsequently attainder and beheaded. The office of Vicegerent in Spirituals, which had been specifically created for him, was not filled.

On 28 July 1540 (the same day Lord Essex was executed) Henry married the young Catherine Howard (also referred to as Katherine), Anne Boleyn's first cousin. He was absolutely delighted with his new queen. Soon after her marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with the courtier, Thomas Culpeper. She also employed Francis Dereham, who was previously informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary. Thomas Cranmer, who was opposed to the powerful Catholic Howard family, brought evidence of Queen Catherine's activities to the King's notice. Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations, he allowed Cranmer to conduct an investigation, which resulted in Queen Catherine's implication. When questioned, the Queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Queen Catherine's relationship with Thomas Culpeper.

Catherine's marriage was annulled shortly before her execution. As was the case with Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard could not have technically been guilty of adultery, as the marriage was officially null and void from the beginning. Again, this point was ignored, and Catherine was executed on 13 February 1542. She was only about eighteen years old at the time.

Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr, in 1543. She argued with Henry over religion; she was a radical, but Henry remained a conservative. This behaviour almost led to her undoing, but she saved herself by a show of submissiveness. She helped reconcile Henry with his first two daughters, the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth. In 1544, an Act of Parliament put them back in the line of succession after Edward, Prince of Wales, though they were still deemed illegitimate. The same Act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will.

A mnemonic for the fates of Henry's wives is "divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived". An alternative version is "King Henry the Eighth, to six wives he was wedded: One died, one survived, two divorced, two beheaded". (Or, more succinctly, "Two beheaded, one died, two divorced, one survived.") The doggerel, however, may be misleading. Firstly, Henry was never divorced from any of his wives; rather, his marriages to them were annulled. Secondly, four marriages — not two — ended in annulments. The marriages to Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard were annulled shortly before their executions and, although her marriage to Henry was annulled, Anne of Cleves survived him as did Catherine Parr.

The cruelty and tyrannical disposition of Henry became more and more apparent as he advanced in years and failed in health. And the fearful series of political executions, which had commenced with that of Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk in 1513, ended with Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, in January, 1547. According to Holinshed, the number of executions in this reign amounted to 72,000.

Henry VIII began the English Reformation which was the process by which the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff in England was eliminated and replaced with Royal Supremacy and the institution of a Church of England outside of the Roman Catholic Church and under the power of the Supreme Governance of the English monarch. The English Reformation was more of a political than a theological dispute which was at the root of it. The breakup between Rome and England started in the reign of Henry VIII and is therefore sometimes called the Henrician Reformation. Henry didn’t really establish new ideas about religion, he just wanted England’s church to be independent. (In an intriguing parallel during that same century, the Safavid rulers of Iran broke away from the majority doctrine, Sunniism, of their region, and Islam in Iran#Shi'a Islam in Iran to the minority doctrine of Shi'a.)

In 1521, he had defended the Papacy from Martin Luther's claims of heresy in a book he wrote called The Defence of the Seven Sacraments.

The group that was mainly threatened by Henry was the Roman Catholic Church because Henry wanted to separate from it and establish England’s own church.

Henry’s actions impacted Europe in that England established its own church and separated from the Roman Catholic church, this gave England’s church its own power and influenced other states to establish their own churches.

Mary Rose The Mary Rose was one of the many ships used in battle during the time of Henry and it was his favourite ship. The Mary Rose was named after Henry VIII’s sister Mary and the Tudor Emblem. It took a year for her to be completed. She was built in Portsmouth, England. She was one of the earliest purposely-built warships to serve/fight in the English Navy. She was sunk in the Solent. It was thought that she was sunk during the war against the French fleet July 19th 1545.

Death and succession

Later in life, Henry was grossly overweight, with a waist measurement of 54 inches (137 cm), and possibly suffered from gout. Henry's increased size dates from a jousting accident in 1536. He suffered a thigh wound which not only prevented him from exercising, but also gradually became ulcerated and may have indirectly led to his death, which occurred on 28 January 1547 at the Palace of Whitehall. He died on what would have been his father's 90th birthday.

The well known theory that Henry suffered from syphilis was first promoted approximately 100 years after his death. Recent support for this idea has come from a greater understanding of the disease and has also led to the suggestion that his children, Edward VI, Mary I of England, and Elizabeth I, may have displayed symptoms characteristic of congenital syphilis. A second recent theory suggests that Henry's medical symptoms, and those of his older sister Margaret Tudor, are characteristic of untreated Type II diabetes.

Henry VIII was buried in St. George's Chapel, Windsor in Windsor Castle, next to his wife Jane Seymour. Almost a hundred years later Charles I of England would also be buried in his grave. Within a little more than a decade after his death, all three of his legitimate children sat on the English throne, and they had no descendants.

Under the Third Succession Act, Henry's only surviving legitimate son, Edward, inherited the Crown, becoming Edward VI of England. Edward was the first Protestant monarch to rule England. Since Edward was only nine years old at the time, he could not exercise actual power. Henry's will designated 16 executors to serve on a council of regency until Edward reached the age of 18. The executors chose Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, Jane Seymour's elder brother, to be Lord Protector of the Realm. In default of heirs to Edward, the throne was to pass to Henry VIII's daughter by Catherine of Aragon, the Mary I of England and her heirs. If Mary's issue also failed, the crown was to go to Henry's daughter by Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth I of England, and her heirs. Finally, if Elizabeth's line also became extinct, the crown was to be inherited by the descendants of Henry VIII's deceased younger sister, Mary Tudor, Queen of France. The descendants of Henry's sister Margaret Tudor - the royal family of Scotland - were therefore excluded from succession according to this act.

Legacy No account of the legacy of Henry VIII can overlook its dominating fact � the launching of the English Reformation. Though mainly motivated by dynastic and personal concerns, and despite never really abandoning the fundamentals of the Catholic faith, Henry ensured that the greatest act of his reign would be one of the most radical and decisive of any English monarch. His break with Rome in 1533-4 was an act with enormous consequences for the course of modern English history well beyond the end of the Tudor dynasty: not only in making possible the subsequent transformation of England into a vibrant (albeit very distinctive) Protestant society but also in the shift of economic and political power from the Church to the gentry, chiefly through the seizure and transfer of monastic lands and assets � a short-term strategy with long term social consequences. Henry's decision to entrust the regency of his son Edward's minor years to a decidedly Protestant regency council dominated by Edward Seymour � most likely for the simple tactical reason that Seymour seemed likely to provide the strongest leadership for the kingdom � ensured that the Protestant reformation would be consolidated and even furthered during his son's reign. Such ironies marked other aspects of his legacy. He fostered humanist learning and yet was responsible for the deaths of several outstanding English humanists. Obsessed with securing the succession to the throne, he left no legitimate heirs but a young son (who died before his sixteenth birthday) and two daughters devoted to mutually incompatible religions. The power of the state was magnified, yet so too (at least after Henry's death) were demands for increased political participation by the middle class. Henry worked with some success to once again make England a major player on the European scene but depleted his treasury in the course of doing so, a legacy that would remain an issue for English monarchs through the very end of the Tudor dynasty.

Together with Alfred the Great and Charles II of England, Henry is traditionally called one of the founders of the Royal Navy. There are good reasons for this � his reign featured some naval warfare and, more significantly, large royal investment in shipbuilding (including a few spectacular 'great ships' such as Mary Rose), dockyards (such as HMNB Portsmouth) and naval innovations (eg the use of cannon on-board ship - although archers were still deployed on medieval-style forecastles and bowcastles as the ship's primary armament on large ships, or co-armament where cannon were used). However, in some ways it is a misnomer since Henry did not bequeath to his immediate successors a 'navy' in the sense of a formalised organisation with structures, ranks, formalised munitioning structures etc but only in the sense of a set of ships (albeit some spectacular ones). Elizabeth I of England still had to cobble together a set of privately owned ships to fight off the Spanish Armada (which consisted of about 130 warships and converted merchant ships) and in the former, formal sense the modern British navy, the Royal Navy, is largely a product of the Anglo-Dutch naval rivalry of the seventeenth century. Still, Henry's reign marked the birth of English naval power, and was a key factor in England's later victory over the Spanish Armada.

Henry's break with Roman Catholic Church incurred the threat of a large-scale French or Spanish invasion. To guard against this he strengthened existing coastal defence fortresses (such as Dover Castle and, also at Dover, Kent, Moat Bulwark and Archcliffe Fort�he personally visited for a few months to supervise, as is commemorated in the modern exhibition in Dover Castle's keep there). He also built a chain of new 'castles' (in fact, large bastioned and garrisoned gun batteries) along Britain's southern coast from East Anglia to Cornwall, largely built of material gained from the Dissolution of the Monasteries. These were also known as Henry VIII's Device Forts.

The only surviving piece of clothing worn by Henry VIII is a cap of maintenance, awarded to the Mayor of Waterford, along with a bearing sword, in 1536. It currently resides in the Waterford Museum of Treasures.

Style and arms Henry VIII was the first English monarch to regularly use the style "Majesty", though the alternatives "Highness" and "Grace" were also used from time to time.

Several changes were made to the royal style during his reign. Henry originally used the style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, List of monarchs of England, English Kings of France and Lord of Ireland". In 1521, pursuant to a grant from Pope Leo X rewarding a book by Henry attacking Martin Luther and defending Roman Catholic Church, the royal style became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Fidei Defensor and Lord of Ireland". After the breach with Rome, Pope Paul III rescinded the grant of the title "Defender of the Faith", but an Act of Parliament declared that it remained valid.

In 1535, Henry added the "supremacy phrase" to the royal style, which became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth Supreme Head". In 1536, the phrase "of the Church of England" changed to "of the Church of England and also of Church of Ireland".

In 1541, Henry had the Irish Parliament change the title "Lord of Ireland" to "King of Ireland" (see Crown of Ireland Act 1542) after being advised that many Irish ethnicity regarded the Pope as the true head of their country, with the Lord acting as a mere representative. The reason the Irish regarded the Pope as their overlord was because Ireland had originally been given to the English King Henry II of England by Pope Adrian IV in the twelfth century as a feudal territory under papal overlordship. The meeting of Irish Parliament that proclaimed Henry VIII King of Ireland was the first meeting attended by the Gaelic Irish chieftains as well as the Anglo-Irish aristocrats. The style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head" remained in use until the end of Henry's reign.

Henry's motto was Coeur Loyal (true heart) and he had this embroidered on his clothes in the form of a heart symbol and with the word 'loyal'. His emblem was the Tudor rose and the Beaufort portcullis.

Henry VIII's heraldry were the same as those used by his predecessors since Henry IV of England: Quarterly, Azure three Fleur-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England).

Ancestry {{ahnentafel-compact5|style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%;|border=1|boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0;|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;|1= 1. Henry VIII of England|2= 2. [Henry VII of England|4= 4. [Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond|6= 6. [Edward IV of England|8= 8. [Owen Tudor|10= 10. [John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset|12= 12. [Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York|14= 14. [Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers|16= 16. [Maredudd ap Tudur|18= 18. [Charles VI of France|20= 20. [John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset|22= 22. [John de Beauchamp, 3rd Baron Beauchamp|24= 24. [Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge|26= 26. [Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland|28= 28. Sir [Richard Wydevill|30= 30. [Pierre de Luxembourg-->

Issue
{| border="1" align="center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"|- bgcolor=cccccc!Name!!Birth!!Death!!width=40%|Notes|-bgcolor=d5d5d5!colspan=4|By Catherine of Aragon (married 11 June 1509 annulled 23 May 1533)] 1510||[1 January 1511 1511|||-|Unnamed son||colspan=2|November 1513|||-|Henry, Duke of Cornwall||colspan=2|December 1514|||-|[Mary I of England||18 February 1516 [1558; no issue|-|Unnamed daughter ||colspan=2| 10 November 1518 |||-!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|By [Anne Boleyn (married 25 January 1533 annulled 1536)]||7 September 1533] 1603" || colspan=2| 1534 || Historians are uncertain if the child was born and died shortly after birth, or if it had been a miscarriage. The affair was hushed up and we cannot even be certain of the child's sex.|-|"[Edward Tudor (I)"||colspan=2|29 January 1536|||-!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|By Jane Seymour (married 30 May 1536; she died 25 October 1537)]||12 October 1537] 1553 (married [6 January 1540 annulled 1540)] (married 28 July 1540 annulled 1541)] (married 12 July 1543; died 5 September 1548)]|-|Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset||15 June 1519 1536||illegitimate; married 1533, the Lady Mary Howard; no issue|-!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|By The [Lady Mary Boleyn
(Some historians, such as Alison Weir (historian), now question whether Henry Carey was fathered by Henry VIII.Henry VIII: The King and His Court, by Alison Weir, p. 216)|-|Catherine Carey ||[15 January 1568; had issue|-|[Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon||4 March 1526 ] 1596|-|[Thomas Stucley||c. 1525||4 August 1578||c. 1527||September 1592||reputed illegitimate; married (1) Ann Cheyney and (2) Jane Pruet; had issue|-!colspan=4 bgcolor=d5d5d5|By [Joan Dyngley]||c. 1529||aft. 1555|| reputed illegitimate; married 1546–1548 to John Harrington; no known issue|}* Note: Of Henry VIII's reputedly illegitimate children, only the Duke of Richmond and Somerset was formally acknowledged by the King. The paternity of his other alleged illegitimate children is not fully established. There may also have been other illegitimate children born to short-term unidentified mistresses.

In popular culture Film There have been many films about Henry and his court, notably:

The Private Life of Henry VIII (1933), starring Charles Laughton, whose performance as Henry earned him an Academy Award for Best Actor
The Six Wives of Henry VIII (TV series) (1973), starring Keith Michell, based on an earlier TV series (see below).
Richard Burton and Geneviève Bujold were nominated for Academy Awards for Best Actor and Academy Award for Best Actress for their roles as Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn in Anne of the Thousand Days (1969).
Carry On Henry (1970), starring Sid James.
A young Henry, played by Robert Shaw (actor), also appears as one of the main characters in the multiple-Academy Awards-winning movie about Thomas More, A Man for All Seasons (1966 film) (1966), based upon Robert Bolt's play of the same name - a role played by Keith Baxter on Broadway theatre and later by Martin Chamberlain in Charlton Heston's A Man for All Seasons (1988 film).
Henry VIII (again played by Charles Laughton) was also a featured character in a movie about the early years of Elizabeth I of England, Young Bess (1953).
In 2006 a film called The Other Boleyn Girl (film), starring Scarlett Johansson as Mary Boleyn, Natalie Portman as Anne Boleyn and Eric Bana as Henry VIII, began filming.

Television Henry has also made many television appearances:

The 1970 BBC series The Six Wives of Henry VIII (TV series), starring Keith Michell, made up of six television plays, one per wife, each by a different author.
The 2003 ITV feature-length Henry VIII, with Ray Winstone as Henry, critically panned for portraying Henry as an East End of London gangster, speaking with Winstone's characteristic Cockney tones, surrounded by a court speaking in Received Pronunciation.
Henry was played by actor Jared Harris in the BBC adaptation of The Other Boleyn Girl#BBC TV adaptation.
Henry was also briefly portrayed in once scene in The Virgin Queen (TV show) 2005 mini-series.
In 2006, Showtime and Peace Arch Entertainment announced a new series called The Tudors (TV series) dramatising Henry VIII as a young man. The series opened to the highest ratings in three years for the Showtime network and was recently reupped for a second season. The 2007 series stars Jonathan Rhys-Meyers as the young king during the early years of his reign.
The Simpsons have also done their own portrayal of Henry in the episode "Margical History Tour" with Homer Simpson as King Henry 8th, Marge Simpson as Katherine of Aragon, and Lisa Simpson as Mary I.
In documentary, leading academic David Starkey produced the Channel 4 series Henry VIII and The Six Wives of Henry VIII - the latter gave one episode each to Katherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, one jointly to Jane Seymour and Anne of Cleves, and another jointly to Catherine Howard and Catherine Parr. Henry also has an episode to himself in the more recent series Monarchy (TV series).

Music In 1910, Fred Murray and R. P. Weston wrote a music hall song, "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am", which plays off Henry VIII's numerous wives, although the lyrics make it clear that it is actually about a man named Henry who is the eighth with that name to have married the woman alluded to in the song. It became a signature song of Harry Champion, and became a #1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States when it was revived in 1965 by British rock band Herman's Hermits.

In 1973, Rick Wakeman of progressive rock band Yes (band) released The Six Wives of Henry VIII (album), a concept album with six instrumental tracks dedicated to each of Henry's wives. The track listing is not chronologically correct, as the album lists the wives in the following order:

Catherine of Aragon
Anne of Cleves
Catherine Howard
Jane Seymour
Anne Boleyn
Catherine Parr

In the liner notes Wakeman explained: "This album is based around my interpretations of the musical characteristics of the wives of Henry VIII. Although the style may not always be in keeping with their individual history, it is my personal conception of their characters in relation to keyboard instruments".

A widely believed legend is that the song Greensleeves was written by Henry. It is said that he composed it for his lover and future Queen, Anne Boleyn. However, there is no evidence that he was the author and the song is written in a style which was not known in England until after Henry died.

Media See also

References

Bowle, John. Henry VIII: A Study of Power in Action Little, Brown, 1964.
John Lloyd and John Mitchinson "The Book of General Ignorance". faber and faber,2006
Bryant, M. Private Lives. Cassell, 2001.
Eakins, L. E. (2004). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII".
Farrow, John V. The Story of Thomas More. Collins, 1956.
"Henry VIII". (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
Kranes, Marsha et al. Know It All. New York: Tess Press, 1998.
Jokinen, A. (2004). "Henry VIII (1491–1547)".
Moorhouse, Geoffrey. Great Harry's Navy: How Henry VIII Gave England Seapower
Public Broadcasting Service. (2003). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII".
Nostro, Rit "at only 17 years old. He assumed the throne of England and married his brother’s widow, Katherine of Aragon"
Thurston, H. (1910). "Henry VIII". The Catholic Encyclopedia. (Vol. VII). New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Vallieres, S. (1999). "Tudor Succession Problems"
Wagner, John A. (2003). "Bosworth Field to Bloody Mary: An Encyclopedia of the Early Tudors." (Greenwood). ISBN 1-57356-540-7.
Weir, Alison. The Six Wives of Henry VIII. Bodley Head, 1991.
Ask Ireland: Waterford Museum of Treasures Collection: Cap of Maintenance
C. D. C. Armstrong, ‘Gardiner, Stephen (c.1495x8–1555)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004
Henry VIII, "Assertio septem sacramentorum aduersus Martin. Luther" (1521) Treasure 9 National Library of Vatican City displayed via The European Library